Objective This study aims to modify the expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) tubular fiber membrane prepared by unidirectional stretching through secondary heating and quenching processes, so as to address the issues of insufficient flexibility and longitudinal elasticity, thereby enhancing the compliance, mechanical properties and antithrombotic performance of artificial blood vessels and providing better materials for clinical vascular transplantation.

Method The ePTFE tubular fiber membranes were prepared by the one-way stretching method. On this basis, secondary heating (at 300 ℃) and water quenching processes were introduced to reshape the structure. The microstructure, crystallinity, mechanical properties, compliance and biocompatibility of the membranes were characterized by electron microscopy scanning, X-ray diffraction, mechanical stretching tests, dynamic vascular compliance tests and cytotoxicity experiments. The in vivo evaluation was conducted through a large dog carotid artery replacement model.

Results After secondary heating and water quenching treatment, the inner wall node spacing of the ePTFE tubular fiber membrane shortened, the pore diameter decreased, and the outer wall fibers were arranged in a wavy pattern, forming a pore structure with a denser inner layer and a sparser outer layer. The inner pore diameter was significantly smaller than the outer pore diameter. XRD analysis showed a decrease in crystallinity of the material and an increase in the proportion of amorphous regions. In terms of mechanical properties, the longitudinal strength was significantly increased (the radial fracture strength did not change much), and the elongation at break remained stable. The stress-strain curve exhibited a typical nonlinear response, and the toe region elongation indicated enhanced flexibility. Vascular compliance tests revealed that the samples after secondary heating treatment had significantly better compliance than the untreated samples, and the wavy fiber structure endowed it with the elastic deformability similar to a spring. Cell toxicity experiments indicated that the cell viability of the extract solution group was higher than 90%, with no significant cytotoxicity and good biocompatibility. Canine carotid artery replacement experiments manifested that the samples after the secondary heating treatment did not form blood clots after the implantation for 6 months. The surface was smooth and endothelial cells grew into the tube wall with well encapsulated connective tissue, and no inflammatory reaction was found, while the primary shaped samples showed blood clotting and inflammatory cell infiltration within 2-3 weeks. The performance improvement was achieved because high compliance reduced blood flow turbulence, smooth and dense inner walls inhibited platelet adhesion, and the microporous structure promoted tissue integration and vascularization.

Conclusion The secondary heating and quenching treatment can effectively optimize the structure and performance of ePTFE tubular fiber membranes, forming a dense inner and sparse outer pore structure and wave-like fiber morphology. The pore structure significantly enhances axial strength, flexibility and elasticity, making them more similar to the mechanical behavior of natural blood vessels. This material has excellent biocompatibility and antithrombotic properties. The animal experiment results, show the material has excellent tissue integration and endothelialization ability, significantly outperforming conventional primary shaped samples. Research indicates that the proposed ePTFE tubular fiber membranes have significant application potential in the field of artificial blood vessels.

Objective In order to address the lack of in-depth investigation into the relationship among electrospinning parameters, nanofiber morphology, and cell behavior, this study systematically investigates the influence of key electrospinning parameters on the morphological structure of chitosan/polycaprolactone (CS/PCL) nanofiber membranes and evaluates the physical guidance effect of the oriented nanofiber membrane on bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), providing fundamental theoretical support for the design of neural tissue engineering scaffolds.

Method CS/PCL nanofiber membranes were prepared via electrospinning. The influence of key parameters (receiving distance, outflow velocity, receiving roller speed) on membrane morphology was investigated to screen optimal fabrication conditions. The biocompatibility of the nanofiber membranes was evaluated using CCK-8 and live/dead assays, and the physical guidance effect on MSCs was assessed by observing cell adhesion, morphology, and alignment on the oriented nanofiber membranes via immunofluorescence staining and gradient dehydration followed by scanning electron microscopy observation.

Results The optimization of electrospinning parameters revealed that the synergistic effect between receiving distance and outflow velocity is crucial for obtaining uniform fibers. Under a receiving distance of 16 cm and an outflow velocity of 0.8 mL/h, nanofibers with an average diameter of 274 nm and uniform morphology were successfully prepared. Meanwhile, the receiving roller speed was found to be the key parameter for regulating fiber orientation. As the receiving roller speed increased from 1 500 r/min to 2 500 r/min, the fiber orientation degree demonstrated significant improvement. However, when the receiving roller speed was further increased to 3 000 r/min, excessive mechanical stress caused disorder in fiber alignment, resulting in a decrease in orientation degree. The resulting CS/PCL nanofiber membranes exhibited good biocompatibility and had a certain promoting effect on the proliferation of MSCs. More importantly, cells on the highly oriented nanofiber membrane adhered well and aligned along the oriented direction of the fibers, exhibiting a pronounced directional extension behavior. Furthermore, cells displayed an elongated morphology closely resembling that of neuronal axons, indicating that the oriented nanofiber membrane has the potential to promote neural differentiation of MSCs.

Conclusion This study successfully fabricated highly oriented CS/PCL nanofiber membrane with excellent morphological characteristics through systematic optimization of electrospinning parameters. In vitro cell experiments demonstrated that this highly ordered physical structure exerts a significant physical guidance effect on bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Specifically, the oriented nanofiber membrane not only effectively promoted cell adhesion and alignment along the fiber orientation direction but also induced cells to exhibit a neuron-like morphology. This finding confirms that the oriented nanofiber membrane can regulate stem cell behavior and differentiation through physical signals, providing solid experimental evidence for the design of neural tissue engineering scaffolds based on physical structure regulation.

Objective In order to overcome the inherent brittleness and instability of pure keratin aerogels, this study aims to prepare a high-performance composite by crosslinking wool keratin with a mild crosslinker, ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (EGDE), and then blending it with sodium alginate (SA). This approach expands its application potential in tissue engineering scaffolds and wound dressings.

Method Wool keratin was extracted using a reducing solution containing urea and dithiothreitol (DTT). The soluble keratin was crosslinked with EGDE under alkaline conditions (pH=10, 60 ℃) at optimized concentration (20%). The modified keratin was combined with sodium alginate (SA) at a ratio of 2∶1, and the mixture was freeze-dried to form porous aerogels. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, rotational rheometry, mechanical compression testing, and fluid uptake assays were employed to evaluate the material's properties.

Results The infrared spectra analysis confirmed covalent crosslinking through the disappearance of the epoxy peak at 908.7 cm^-1 and formation of ether bonds. Free thiol content decreased from 12.42 to 4.62 μmol/g with 50% EGDE, indicating efficient reaction. Gelation time reduced dramatically from 48 h to 15 min at high pH values. Rheological behavior showed shear-thinning and enhanced elastic modulus with increased crosslinking. The composite aerogel exhibited significantly improved water absorption and retention capabilities compared to pure keratin, with the optimal performance achieved at 20% EGDE. Most notably, it demonstrated a high simulated plasma absorption capacity of (9.13±0.42) g/g within 10 s while maintaining structural integrity. Crosslinked samples also demonstrated tunable degradation profiles, with improved stability in both phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and reducing environments.

Conclusion Crosslinking keratin with EGDE significantly enhances aerogel performance, providing mechanical resilience, high fluid absorption, and controlled degradability. The material, particularly its rapid and high-capacity uptake of plasma simulant, shows promise for use in hemostatic and wound care products. This approach also offers an efficient pathway to valorize wool waste into high-value biomedical materials.

Objective Maintaining a moist wound environment, eliminating excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS), preventing bacterial proliferation, and enabling infection monitoring are all essential components in the management of chronic wounds. In order to develop hydrogel dressings with antimicrobial, antioxidative, and infection-monitoring properties, cellulose nanofibers (CNF) were aldehyde-functionalized and crosslinked with carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) through a Schiff base reaction to form the hydrogel. Blueberry anthocyanins (BA) were loaded into the hydrogel by electrostatic adsorption and hydrogen bonding, resulting in a cellulose nanofiber-based antimicrobial, antioxidative, and pH-responsive hydrogel dressing for wound infection monitoring.

Method Aldehyde-functionalized cellulose nanofibers (DACNF) were prepared by sodium periodate oxidation. Different dosages of BA were then added to the DACNF solution and mixed thoroughly. Schiff base reactions occurred between the aldehyde groups in DACNF and the amino groups in CMCS, resulting in the formation of a hydrogel. In this system, BA interacted with the molecular chains of DACNF and CMCS through electrostatic adsorption and hydrogen bonding. The microstructure and chemical composition of the obtained hydrogel were characterized, and its water vapor transmission rate, antioxidant properties, antibacterial activity, pH-responsive color change, and cytotoxicity were systematically evaluated.

Results In the infrared spectra, DACNF exhibited a characteristic aldehyde peak compared to CNF, which disappeared after hydrogel synthesis. In the XRD patterns, the diffraction peak at 2θ=22.7° was significantly reduced in DACNF compared to CNF, and the crystallinity decreased from 77.1% to 56.9%. After hydrogel synthesis, the crystallinity further decreased due to the disruption caused by the Schiff base reaction. When the mass fraction of BA in the hydrogel was increased to 0.125%, the pore size notably decreased compared to hydrogel free of BA, as the increased BA content formed more hydrogen bonds. The hydrogel containing 0.125% anthocyanins exhibited a water vapor transmission rate of 2 611.43 g/(m²·24 h), lower than that of the hydrogel without BA, as the addition of BA reduced the pore size. As the anthocyanin content increased, the free radical scavenging efficacy was correspondingly improved, with the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity reaching 66.90%, by virtue of the increase in BA content introducing a large number of phenolic hydroxyl groups, which neutralized some radicals through hydrogen and electron transfer. Antibacterial tests revealed inhibition rates of 97.35% against S.aureus and 97.21% against E.coli for the 0.125% BA hydrogel, which was attributed to the antimicrobial activity of CMCS. At pH=5.5, the hydrogel color changed from blue-purple to red, with an increase in the a value and red saturation. After 20 min, the total color difference (ΔE) reached 8.02, indicating a visually perceptible change. At pH=7.2, the b value increased while blue saturation decreased, resulting in a lighter color. After 20 min, ΔE increased to 6.28, and the color change of the hydrogel could also be visually captured. Cell viabilities at 1, 3, and 7 d were all above 80%, demonstrating the low cytotoxicity of the hydrogel containing BA.

Conclusion The hydrogel containing 0.125% anthocyanins exhibited excellent antibacterial properties, and good inhibition rates of 97.35% against S. aureus and 97.21% against E. coli. Furthermore, it showcased significant pH-responsive color change, presenting red and blue-purple colors in PBS solutions at pH=5.5 and pH=7.2, respectively. Additionally, the hydrogel displayed a notable DPPH free radical scavenging rate of 75.83%. It also exhibited favorable biocompatibility, with cell viability over 80% at 1, 3, and 7 d. Overall, the findings demonstrate that blueberry anthocyanins hold significant potential for developing pH-sensitive wound hydrogels with antioxidant capabilities. They further serve as a significant reference for the development of innovative pH-responsive wound hydrogel dressings.

Objective Electrospun membranes have great potential as advanced wound dressings by virtue of their high specific surface area, porous structure and good permeability. These attributes facilitate wound exudate absorption and create a moisture-permeable microenvironment for tissue repair. Developing multifunctional membranes with inherent antibacterial properties is crucial for preventing infection and promoting healing. Therefore, a crosslinked polysuccinimide/cinnamaldehyde (PSI/CA) electrospun fibrous membrane was prepared for antibacterial dressing, using PSI as electrospinning polymer matrix and CA as a functional agent.

Method PSI was synthesized by thermal polymerization of L-aspartic acid. Electrospinning solutions were prepared by dissolving PSI and varying amounts of CA (0%, 3%, 5%, and 10% by mass of PSI) in dimethylformamide (DMF). PSI/CA solutions were electrospun into fiber membranes, and then crosslinked with ethylenediamine vapor. The electrospun fiber membranes were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), water absorption test, mechanical property test, antibacterial assays, cytotoxicity analysis and drug release studies.

Results The PSI/CA electrospun fiber membranes exhibited smooth surfaces and a uniform diameter distribution. The addition of CA had no significant effect on fiber diameter. After crosslinking, the fibers display slight bending and agglomeration, with a minor increase in diameter. FT-IR analysis confirmed the opening of the succinimide rings in PSI and formation of amide bonds via crosslinking. In the uncrosslinked state, the PSI/CA electrospun fiber membranes demonstrated a water absorption capacity of 19.0-21.6 g/g, which significantly decreased to 12.8-14.6 g/g after crosslinking due to increased packing density. The CA addition also showed little effect on water absorption properties. Crosslinking notably improved the mechanical strength of the PSI/CA electrospun fiber membranes. With increasing CA loading, the mechanical strength of crosslinked PSI/CA electrospun fiber membranes exhibited a peak of (1.41±0.19) MPa at 3% CA content. All crosslinked PSI/CA electrospun fiber membranes containing CA demonstrated good antibacterial activity. The inhibition rate against both Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus achieved 100%, and the crosslinked pure PSI membrane also showed considerable intrinsic antibacterial activity, with the inhibition rate of 98.5% against Escherichia coli and 87.3% against Staphylococcus aureus, respectively. Cytotoxicity assay revealed good cell compatibility for all membranes, with cell viability remaining above 95%, and a slight promotion of proliferation was observed for CA-loaded PSI/CA electrospun fibrous membranes, with cell viability rate over 98%. In drug release studies, CA displayed an initial burst release within the first 24 h, followed by a sustained release profile. The CA release process conforms to the first-order kinetic model, and the release mechanism was dominated by Fickian diffusion. The CA release behavior was closely related to the CA content in the PSI/CA electrospun fibrous membranes.

Conclusion The PSI loaded with CA is successfully electrospun into fiber membranes. After crosslinking modification, PSI/CA electrospun fiber membranes still retain fiber morphology, along with improved mechanical properties, excellent antibacterial activity and good cell compatibility. The CA release process conformed to the first-order kinetic model, and the release mechanism is dominated by Fickian diffusion. These integrated properties enable the crosslinked PSI/CA electrospun fiber membranes to meet key requirements for advanced wound dressing applications.

Objective Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) characteristically present a hyperglycaemic, alkaline, and highly exudative microenvironment that fosters recurrent infection and impedes healing. This work aims to construct a nanofiber composite dressing that couples antibiotic-free, glucose-triggered antibacterial activity with directional exudate management, thereby addressing both microbial control and moisture regulation at DFU wound beds within a single materials platform.

Method A bilayer architecture was designed comprising a hydrophobic polypropylene (PP) nonwoven substrate and a reconstructed hydrophilic top layer of short poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) fibers. Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs; glucose oxidase-like) and Fe-MIL-88NH₂ metal-organic framework (MOF; peroxidase-like) nanozymes were immobilized on PVDF via a tannic-acid-based adhesive (TBA). Short-fiber dispersions were prepared by high-shear homogenization and spray-reassembled onto PP to establish a wettability gradient. Catalytic performance was verified by methyl-red pH transition and 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) assays. Unidirectional wetting, mechanical behavior, antibacterial efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus) and Escherichia coli (E.coli), and cytocompatibility with human foreskin fibroblasts (HFFs) were systematically evaluated.

Results The nanozyme Fe-MIL-88NH₂ displayed a uniform octahedral morphology with an average particle size near 281 nm and reached maximal peroxidase-mimicking activity at approximately pH=4, while activity diminished under alkaline conditions. The PP substrate and reconstructed PVDF layer were assembled into a porous, interpenetrating network with clearly distinct fiber scales, measured as (15.68±0.26) μm for PP and (515±19.8) nm for PVDF. Methanol activation shifted PVDF toward a more polar state and reduced the static water contact angle from roughly (132.13°±1.63)° to (75.80±2.24)°, while the bilayer preserved a pronounced hydrophobic-hydrophilic asymmetry that is essential for moisture management. Ink-drop tracking confirmed stable unidirectional transport, where droplets placed on the hydrophobic PP face were drawn across the interface into the hydrophilic PVDF layer with an onset near 10 s, whereas droplets deposited on the hydrophilic face were rapidly absorbed and spread within about 5 s and did not seep backward over a 60 s observation window. Tensile testing showed that adding the reconstructed PVDF layer increased strength toward skin-like levels, with machine-direction strength around 11.4 MPa and cross-direction strength around 7.3 MPa, while elongation remained compliant for body motion at (53±8)% in the machine direction and (142±20)% in the cross direction. Cascade catalysis proceeded under physiologically relevant buffers. Au NPs oxidized glucose and lowered the local pH value over roughly 60 min, which activated Fe-MIL-88NH₂ to decompose in-situ-generated hydrogen peroxide and yield hydroxyl radicals (·OH), as indicated by the characteristic blue TMB product. This glucose-responsive cascade translated into potent broad-spectrum antibacterial performance in vitro, with inhibition rate against S.aureus and E.coli exceeding 97% by plate counting relative to controls. Cytocompatibility testing indicated minimal mammalian cell toxicity, with HFF viability maintained at or above 84% after 24 h of co-culture, supporting the safety of the immobilization strategy and matrix selection.

Conclusion The proposed dressing integrates a bilayer with a glucose-triggered Au-NP/Fe-MIL-88NH₂ nanozyme cascade, aligning exudate drainage and on-demand reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation within a single textile construct. The wettability gradient drives liquid unidirectionally from the hydrophobic interior to the hydrophilic exterior, preventing backflow and maintaining a drier wound interface, while the cascade efficiently suppresses bacteria under DFU-relevant glucose levels with ≥97% inhibition rate and preserves fibroblast viability (≥84%). Mechanically, the composite approximates skin-like strength and extensibility, supporting conformal coverage. The short-fiber reconstruction route achieves uniform, stable nanozyme anchoring throughout a porous hydrophilic layer, preserving catalytic accessibility and enhancing mass transfer. Collectively, these findings substantiate a materials strategy that couples exudate management with antibiotic-free antibacterial activity, offering translational promise for managing chronic, infection-prone DFUs. Future work may extend to in vivo validation under dynamic exudate flux, long-term stability of immobilized nanozymes, and optimization of layer thickness and fiber morphology for scalable manufacturing.

Objective Burn and scald injuries present significant clinical challenges due to extensive tissue fluid exudation, prolonged healing time, and high susceptibility to secondary infection. These wounds also demand dynamic care to accommodate movement and dressing changes. Conventional wound dressings often fail to adequately manage these complex requirements simultaneously. Aerogels, known for their ultra-high porosity, specific surface area, and exceptional fluid absorption and retention capabilities, hold theoretical promise for creating an optimal moist wound healing environment. However, conventional bulk aerogels suffer from inherent mechanical fragility, making them difficult to process and mold into practical forms and resulting in poor mechanical stability during application. These limitations represent critical bottlenecks preventing the effective utilization of aerogels in advanced wound care, particularly for dynamic burn sites. In order to overcome these fundamental limitations of bulk aerogels, a novel approach of the directionally assembling a nanoporous structure into a one-dimensional fiber form was adopted. This strategy aimed to retain the core beneficial properties of aerogels-specifically, ultra-high porosity, high specific surface area, and excellent liquid absorption and water retention capacity, while simultaneously conferring essential flexibility, knittability, and mechanical adaptability necessary for practical wound dressing applications. This shift from bulk to fiber morphology directly addresses the processing, molding, and stability challenges.

Method Focusing on sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), a biocompatible polysaccharide, an innovative fibrillation strategy was employed, and a flexible composite antibacterial aerogel fiber was successfully constructed by incorporating copper ions (Cu²⁺) into the CMC-based system. A key innovation in the preparation process was the introduction of Cu²⁺ directly into the spinning dope for aerogel fiber formation. This introduction enabled a critical pre-crosslinking effect before the wet-spinning stage. The mechanism involves coordination bonding between the positively charged Cu²⁺ ions and the negatively charged carboxylate groups present on the CMC molecular chains. This Cu²⁺-carboxylate coordination acted as a powerful molecular directing force, inducing the CMC chains to undergo ordered aggregation and achieve a pre-aligned, oriented arrangement prior to fiber solidification.

Results This coordinated pre-crosslinking and alignment process was pivotal in successfully preparing CMC/Cu²⁺ antibacterial aerogel fibers exhibiting a hierarchical porous structure. The resulting material demonstrated a remarkable enhancement in mechanical strength. Tensile strength measurements reached 12.10 MPa, significantly higher than that observed in equivalent fibers prepared without the Cu²⁺-induced pre-crosslinking step. The molding mechanism is therefore primarily attributed to the synergistic effect of the Cu²⁺-CMC coordination occurring before wet-spinning and the optimized molecular arrangement this induces. This synergy constructs a robust ionic bonding pre-crosslinking network within the fiber, substantially increasing the cross-linking density within the CMC/Cu²⁺ composite. The enhanced cross-linking density is the key factor responsible for the significantly improved mechanical properties of the final aerogel fibers, enabling their practical handling and use as a dressing. Beyond mechanical robustness, the CMC/Cu²⁺ aerogel fibers exhibited potent antibacterial activity. Testing against common wound pathogens, Escherichia coli (E.coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus), demonstrated a bacterial reduction rate of 99.99% for both strains. The antibacterial mechanism is attributed to the properties of the Cu²⁺ ions integrated within the fiber matrix. Initially, positively charged Cu²⁺ ions are electrostatically attracted to the negatively charged surface of the microbial cell membrane by Coulomb forces. Following this initial binding, copper ions penetrate the bacterial cell membrane. Inside the cell, Cu²⁺ interacts with vital intracellular components, leading to the coagulation of bacterial proteins and the inhibition of essential enzyme synthesis. This multifaceted action results in efficient and broad-spectrum bactericidal efficacy.

Conclusion This study developed a novel preparation strategy for advanced aerogel wound dressings. By directionally assembling nanoporous CMC into a fiber form and leveraging Cu²⁺ coordination for pre-crosslinking and molecular alignment, flexible composite CMC/Cu²⁺ aerogel fibers were created. These fibers retain the desirable fluid management properties of aerogels, such as high porosity, surface area, absorption, and retention, while overcoming the critical drawbacks of traditional bulk aerogels-namely brittleness, poor processability, and inadequate mechanical stability. The material simultaneously provides significant mechanical strength and potent, stable antibacterial action. This approach offers a promising new pathway for the development of effective functional dressings, particularly relevant for improving the management and treatment outcomes of challenging burn and scald wounds.

Objective Rotator cuff repairs continue to face significant clinical challenges due to high retear rates, primarily resulting from poor tendon healing and insufficient mechanical support during the regeneration process. This study aims to develop an advanced biomimetic scaffold that combines synthetic polymers with natural extracellular matrix components to create a functional patch that enhances both biological integration and mechanical stability at the repair site, thereby potentially improving clinical outcomes in rotator cuff reconstruction.

Method The as-received poly(D,L-lactic acid) (PDLLA)/type I collagen composite fibrous patch was prepared by electrospinning a blend solution. The thermally as-annealed patch was subsequently obtained by controlled heat treatment. The patches were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), universal mechanical testing, and in vitro cell assays to evaluate their morphology, chemical composition, hydrophilicity, mechanical properties, wet-state stability, and cytocompatibility.

Results Both the as-received and as-annealed patches exhibited well-defined three-dimensional fibrous networks with interconnected pores, featuring a hierarchical structure containing both nanoscale and microscale fibers. The porosity measurements confirmed highly porous architectures exceeding 80%, which provides an optimal environment for cell infiltration and nutrient transport. Successful incorporation of type I collagen within the PDLLA matrix was confirmed by FT-IR spectroscopy, demonstrating characteristic collagen absorption bands. This integration significantly enhanced the surface hydrophilicity of the inherently hydrophobic PDLLA polymer, as evidenced by substantially reduced water contact angles. The thermal annealing treatment profoundly improved the patch's performance in wet conditions. After 14 d aqueous incubation, the as-annealed patch demonstrated remarkable structural preservation compared to the as-received patch. Quantitative analysis revealed that the fiber orientation retention increased by 50% (p<0.001), while the area shrinkage decreased by 39.3% (p<0.01). Mechanical characterization showed that the annealing process effectively maintained structural integrity under hydration, with the as-annealed patch exhibiting 31.21% higher fracture strength (p<0.05) and 84.53% greater elastic modulus (p<0.05) than the as-received patch after the same incubation period. Furthermore, biological assessment confirmed excellent cytocompatibility of the as-annealed patch, with cell proliferation rates consistently exceeding 80% throughout the 7 d culture period.

Conclusion The thermally annealed PDLLA/type I collagen composite fibrous patch proposed demonstrates comprehensive advantages including significantly enhanced wet-state stability, superior mechanical retention under physiological conditions, and excellent cytocompatibility. These improved characteristics address critical requirements for rotator cuff repair applications, where maintaining structural integrity and promoting biological integration are essential for successful healing. The annealing strategy effectively stabilizes the fiber architecture against hydration-induced collapse while preserving the beneficial effects of collagen incorporation on biological activity. The patch's biomimetic composition, combining synthetic polymer durability with natural protein bioactivity, along with its optimized structural properties, positions it as a promising candidate for clinical application in tendon repair. Future work should focus on in vivo validation using appropriate animal models to further investigate the patch's regenerative performance and long-term fate in biological environments, as well as exploration of its potential for delivering therapeutic agents to further enhance the healing process.

Objective Current cardiac patches often fail to simultaneously replicate the complex mechanical anisotropy and electrical conductivity of native myocardium, limiting their efficacy in tissue repair. This study aims to develop a hierarchical composite patch integrating structural biomimicry with functional electrical properties. By combining structural design with material modification, the research provides a multi-dimensional platform that supports cell retention, mimics heart tissue mechanics, and facilitates electrical signal propagation for myocardial regeneration.

Method A dual-process manufacturing strategy combining melt differential electrospinning and melt electrowriting (MEW) was employed using polycaprolactone (PCL) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs). First, a PCL microfiber base membrane was fabricated via differential electrospinning to serve as a cell barrier. Subsequently, a rhombus-patterned PCL backbone was deposited onto the membrane using MEW, with grid angles adjusted to customize mechanical anisotropy. Finally, multi-walled CNTs were coated onto the scaffold via ultrasonic dispersion to confer conductivity. The patches underwent physicochemical characterization and in vitro evaluation with H9c2 cardiomyocytes.

Results Characterization revealed that the melt-electrospun substrate membrane were 9.36 μm, effectively preventing cell leakage while maintaining permeability. The MEW process successfully modulated mechanical properties, the stent with a 70° grid angle exhibited a non-linear J-shaped stress-strain behavior and a longitudinal-to-transverse elastic modulus ratio of 3.55, falling within the physiological range of native myocardium (1.9-3.9). Decreasing the grid angle enhanced longitudinal strength, with the 50° stent achieving peak longitudinal modulus. Following ultrasonic CNT treatment, the stent achieved a longitudinal conductivity of 1.15×10^-3 S/cm. Stability tests in physiological conditions showed a slight initial conductivity decay, stabilizing at 1.09×10^-3 S/cm after 21 d. Biologically, the composite patch demonstrated excellent biocompatibility, with cell viability exceeding 90% after 3 d culture. Crucially, fluorescence staining indicated that the anisotropic rhombic topology and conductive cues synergistically induced H9c2 cardiomyocytes to adhere, spread, and align along the fiber direction, significantly improving morphological maturation compared to isotropic controls.

Conclusion This study successfully constructed a hierarchical PCL/CNTs cardiac patch that overcomes the limitations of conventional isotropic stent. By innovating the anti-leakage substrate + anisotropic skeleton + conductive coating strategy, the patch achieves precise matching of myocardial mechanics and restores electrical connectivity. The 70° diamond-shaped structure provides effective contact guidance cues, promoting cardiomyocyte alignment, while the CNT integration facilitates electrical functionality. These results suggest that the composite patch offers a promising biomimetic strategy for preventing ventricular remodeling and promoting functional recovery in myocardial infarction treatment. Future work will focus on in vivo implantation to assess tissue integration, vascularization, and long-term biodegradation kinetics.

Objective Hernia repair patches are crucial medical implants, but the popularly used polypropylene meshes (PPM) are found to encounter complications such as bacterial infection, postoperative adhesion, and foreign body reaction in clinical practice. This study aims to develop functionally coated patch with required antibacterial properties, hydrophilicity and biocompatibility, thereby providing a novel approach for the research of antibacterial and anti-adhesion composite patches.

Method A phytic acid / benzalkonium chloride (PA/BAC) coating was constructed on polypropylene patch by low-temperature plasma pre-treatment combined with one-step co-deposition, mildly fabricable within 4 h. The coating was characterized by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and water contact angle (WCA) analysis. The in vitro antibacterial efficacy of the coated patch against E. coli and S. aureus was evaluated using the agar diffusion method and colony-forming unit (CFU) counting method.

Results Comprehensive characterizations and in vitro experiments confirmed that phytic acid/benzalkonium chloride (PA/BAC)-coated polypropylene patches were successfully prepared with satisfactory multifunctional properties. FE-SEM observations revealed BAC concentration-dependent coating deposition. The PA/BAC (0.08%) group showed sparse large-sized deposits, the 0.1% group exhibited smaller and denser particles, and the 0.15% group formed a continuous dense full-coverage coating, attributing to enhanced electrostatic interactions between PA and BAC. FT-IR, XRD, and XPS verified successful PA/BAC deposition on polypropylene patches. Water contact angle (WCA) measurements indicated the original PP patch had a WCA of 110.5°, while PA/BAC-coated patches achieved rapid liquid wetting within 1.61-4.41 s, reflecting significantly improved hydrophilicity. Consistently, the bovine serum albumin (BSA) adsorption capacity of coated patches( (39.4±3.04)-(44.5±2.72) mg/g) was remarkably lower than that of the original PP patch( (67.2±3.87 ) mg/g), demonstrating good hydrophilicity and biocompatibility that supports anti-tissue adhesion potential. The compliance test results of the coated patch confirmed that the patch retained its compliance, with its intrinsic flexibility effectively preserved. In vitro antibacterial tests showed PA-coated patches had no obvious inhibition zones, whereas PA/BAC coatings exhibited BAC concentration-dependent activity, where inhibition zone diameters were 14.6-22.5 mm against E. coli and 21-40 mm against S. aureus, with antibacterial rates of 99.99%-100% for both strains. The results indicated satisfactory antibacterial activity of all PA/BAC coatings against E. coli and S. aureus, with the antibacterial rate increasing with rising BAC concentration. The outstanding antibacterial performance constitutes a key innovation of this study. Cytotoxicity assays revealed that the low BAC concentration (0.05%, 0.08%) groups maintained 76%-82% cell viability, with cells adhering well and retaining normal morphology, indicating acceptable coating biocompatibility.

Conclusion In order to address bacterial infection and postoperative adhesion of polypropylene hernia meshes in clinical use, this study proposes a surface functionalization strategy with PA and BAC. A PA/BAC coating was constructed on PP patches via low-temperature plasma pretreatment combined with one-step co-deposition, gently fabricated in 4 h. This mild, simple process enables PP mesh functionalization, relying on PA's surface affinity and electrostatic interactions between PA and BAC. Static water contact angle tests showed full droplet wetting on coated patches, indicating significantly enhanced hydrophilicity. Protein adsorption assays revealed a marked reduction vs. original PP patch, supporting anti-adhesion capacity. In vitro antibacterial tests demonstrated excellent efficacy against E. coli and S. aureus, with inhibition zones expanding with BAC concentration and a 100% antibacterial rate. Cell experiments showed normal morphology and adherent growth on patches coated with 0.05%, 0.08%, and 0.1% PA/BAC. Future work will focus on optimizing BAC's concentration range and its low-toxicity modification. In summary, this one-step co-deposition strategy synergistically enhances PP patches' antibacterial and anti-adhesion functions, with simple, mild conditions suitable for industrialization, offering an innovative pathway for functionalizing hernia repair materials.

Significance With the rapid development of Internet of Things wearable electronic devices and the growing demand for real-time health monitoring, the limitations of conventional wearable devices are becoming increasingly apparent. Conventional wearable devices typically rely on battery power, which has limited battery life, low comfort, and environmental pollution issues, thus difficult to meet the needs of long-term, continuous health monitoring. Triboelectric textiles (Tex-TENG) are a new type of self-powered sensor technology, which generates electrical energy from mechanical motion, relying on the coupling effect of contact electrification and electrostatic induction. They feature high sensitivity, fast response, and self-powered characteristics, enabling precise capture human physiological signals. Additionally, Tex-TENG can be integrated with flexible fabrics, providing innovative solutions for the application of wearable health monitoring devices in various scenarios. Therefore, it has great significance to systematically review the applications of Tex-TENG in the field of smart health monitoring and explore the potential challenges and innovations it faces.

Progress Tex-TENG represents a pioneering product that integrates triboelectric nanogenerator technology with conventional textile technology, thus demonstrating significant applications in smart health monitoring. This integration endows it with mechano-electric conversion capability and flexible sensing characteristics, making it a promising innovation in the field. Tex-TENG can be used as a physiological signal sensing system requiring no external power supply. It responds in real time to biomechanical stimuli such as movement, breathing, and pulses, and can even provide automatic early warning of diseases. Currently, Tex-TENG has been applied in various scenarios. In physiological signal monitoring, Tex-TENG is integrated into smart clothing to capture real-time changes in heart rate, respiration and body temperature, enabling high-precision data acquisition through sensing subtle deformations. In sports and rehabilitation management, Tex-TENG is embedded in sports equipment to provide data support for rehabilitation training. In the care of patients suffering from chronic diseases and special populations, it can be made into flexible patches to realize long-term non-invasive monitoring of physiological indicators and reduce the burden of use for the elderly. In wound care, it can be used as an intelligent bandage to provide real-time feedback on wound status. In the field of implantable devices, it can drive life support equipment such as pacemakers. In extreme environments and emergency rescue, Tex-TENG can act as a self-powered module to supply electricity to life detection equipment and locate trapped people at disaster sites. Through multi-dimensional technological innovation, Tex-TENG provides self-powered and highly adaptable solutions for wearable devices in smart health monitoring.

Conclusion and Prospect This review aims to explore the application of Tex-TENG in the field of human health care. It briefly describes the working principle and structural design of Tex-TENG. The focus is on its applications in the field of smart health monitoring, including real-time monitoring of physiological signals, exercise and rehabilitation management, long-term care for patients suffering from chronic diseases and special populations, smart wound care and implantable devices, extreme environments, and emergency rescue. Typical examples are provided in each aspect to illustrate the application of Tex-TENG in the field of human health care. The challenges faced and future development trends of Tex-TENG in the field of health management are also introduced. With the emergence of smarter technologies and the growing demand for life and health management in the future, Tex-TENG will be rapidly developed in the field of life and health management and gradually form mature products in the future. However, the application of Tex-TENG in the field of life and health management also faces many challenges, especially issues such as energy output performance and load matching, insufficient environmental stability in medical applications, conflicts between biocompatibility and wearability, and long-term reliability and scalability bottlenecks. Tex-TENG still requires further research to advance its transition from the laboratory to clinical products, bringing more advanced, convenient, and efficient monitoring solutions to the healthcare field.

Significance With population aging and the rising prevalence of chronic diseases, continuous health monitoring has become increasingly important. Conventional medical devices and consumer-grade equipment rely on chemical batteries or external power sources, which limits monitoring continuity, wearing comfort, and sustainability. Textile-based triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) can convert mechanical energy generated by human motion into electrical energy through contact electrification and electrostatic induction. This self-powered feature allows real-time monitoring of physiological signals without external energy input. Moreover, textile-based TENGs possess flexibility, breathability, and compatibility with textile manufacturing processes, thus well-suitable for wearable devices and long-term health management scenarios. Therefore, reviewing the development of textile-based TENGs in human health monitoring is of great significance for guiding high-performance material design, scalable fabrication process optimization, and intelligent integration.

Progress Since the concept of TENGs was proposed in 2012, textile-based TENGs have achieved rapid progress in materials, structures, and functionalities. This review summarizes their working principles and four fundamental modes: contact-separation, lateral-sliding, single-electrode, and independent modes. In material design, research has focused on optimizing the performance of both the friction layer and the electrode. Typical friction materials such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), and polyamide fiber can enhance charge transfer efficiency. The use of metal-based, carbon-based, and conductive polymer-based electrodes has improved conductivity and durability. Different types of electrodes show different trade-offs in conductivity, flexibility, and wearing comfort. Therefore, rational pairing of the friction layer and electrode layer is crucial for achieving high-performance textile-based TENGs. Fiber/yarn-based TENG fabrication methods include coating, yarn-wrapping, weaving, wet-spinning, and electrospinning. Among them, coating and yarn-wrapping are simple and suitable for initial applications, while weaving and wet-spinning offer better structural stability and industrialization potential. Electrospinning can produce nanofiber yarns with high specific surface area, improving charge density and electrical output. However, it still suffers from poor wear resistance and low production efficiency. In recent years, textile-based TENGs have been increasingly explored for health monitoring applications. In daily life monitoring, TENGs are adopted to detect basic physiological signals such as respiration, heart rate, and gait, supporting continuous tracking of physical activity and posture. Integrated into bedding or clothing arrays, they can monitor pressure distribution for sleep analysis and behavioral observation. In clinical scenarios, these devices can record pulse, vascular signals, and muscle activity, providing data support for disease diagnosis and rehabilitation assistance. These advancements indicate that textile-based TENGs are gradually evolving from laboratory prototypes to multifunctional smart fabrics. Such systems are capable of self-powered physiological sensing and environmental adaptability.

Conclusion and Prospect Although textile-based TENGs provide an effective technical pathway for self-powered continuous health monitoring, they still face several challenges including (1) limited effective contact area restricting charge density and output performance; (2) demands for suitable storage circuits for the generated alternating current, increasing system complexity and affecting flexibility and comfort; (3) degraded output performance due to mechanical wear, repeated deformation, and washing over long-term use; and (4) complex and costly fabrication processes limiting industrial-scale production. Future research directions have been proposed. High-performance and durable friction materials should be developed to maintain stable surface charges while exhibiting excellent mechanical properties. Fabrication techniques compatible with textile processes should be optimized to enable scalable production. Integration of TENGs with artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) should be strongly promoted into intelligent health data collection and management. Interdisciplinary collaboration across materials science, biomedical engineering, and energy technologies should be strengthened to achieve multifunctional integration and standardize device performance evaluation. Textile-based TENGs are expected to lead the next generation of wearable health monitoring devices and promote the widespread application of smart textiles.

Significance Serving as a foundational element of the perception layer in the Internet of Things (IoT), flexible sensors have attracted widespread attention by virtue of their excellent flexibility, environmental adaptability, and scene compatibility. They have shown broad application prospects in fields such as medical diagnosis, intelligent control, and energy collection. Furthermore, the integration of electronic technology has opened up unique paths for the performance breakthroughs and function expansion of flexible sensors. However, current flexible sensors still face technical bottlenecks in structural design, performance stability, and large-scale production and application. In order address these challenges and further promote the development of flexible sensors, this paper systematically reviews the research progress of flexible magnetoelectric sensors based on the magnetoelectric effect, providing references for subsequent related application research.

Progress This review focuses on three types of flexible magneto-electric sensors based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, the Hall effect, and the magnetoelastic effect. It systematically elaborates on the three types of sensors' working mechanisms, material selection, preparation processes, and application methods. For sensors based on Faraday's law, the research focuses on blending magnetic particles with polymers and constructing flexible magnetic components and conductive coils through processes such as spinning, weaving, sewing, or printing, thereby enabling energy collection and self-powered sensing for the sensors. Sensors based on the Hall effect are typically fabricated using techniques such as magnetron sputtering and lithography on flexible film substrates, have high sensitivity and stability, and have been applied in wearable devices, human-computer interaction, medical implantation, and other fields. Sensors based on the magnetoelastic effect are usually constructed by blending magnetic particles with elastomers and combining liquid metals, silver-coated yarns, and other flexible conductive materials, have high sensitivity, stretchability, and durability, and are suitable for health monitoring and self-powered biomechanical sensing. The structural design of these flexible magneto-electric sensors has a significant impact on their performance. The influence of different construction methods on the comprehensive performance of the sensors are also extensively explored and discussed.

Conclusion and Prospect Through integrating self-powering operation, sensitive signal detection, and flexible physical forms, flexible magnetoelectric sensors are finding increasingly widespread applications. Future development could focus on designs that coordinate multiple transduction mechanisms, designing cost-effective, efficient and scalable production processes, and further deepening the integration of flexible sensors with smart textiles. These efforts would enhance comfort in wearable use and promote the application of flexible electronics in health monitoring, smart textiles, and the IoT.

Objective Postoperative monitoring of vascular diseases is crucial for evaluating repair efficacy and preventing complications. However, existing clinical monitoring methods are associated with inherent limitations, including reliance on large-scale equipment, cumbersome operational procedures, and the lack of continuous monitoring capability. In order to address these pressing issues, this study aims to develop a flexible implantable sensor based on poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) that enables long-term, continuous monitoring of the repair status of vascular diseases. PLLA was selected as the core material by virtue of its excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, and inherent piezoelectric properties, which are essential for constructing implantable devices with minimal biological side effects.

Method Although PLLA is a medically degradable material with intrinsic piezoelectricity, the nanofiber membranes fabricated via electrospinning typically exhibit low piezoelectric output, which severely restricts their practical application in sensor devices. Moreover, the underlying mechanism regulating the piezoelectric properties of PLLA nanofibers remains unclear. In order to overcome these short comings, a systematic experimental approach was adopted. In particular, different electrospinning parameters and post-treatment conditions were selected to fabricate a series of PLLA nanofiber membranes. Comprehensive characterizations were performed to investigate the influences of these parameters on the fiber morphology and molecular crystal structure of the PLLA nanofibers, as well as their subsequent impacts on piezoelectric performance.

Results The experimental results demonstrated that both fiber morphology and crystallinity are critical factors governing the piezoelectric output performance of PLLA nanofiber membranes. PLLA nanofibers with a smaller and more uniform diameter exhibited the optimal piezoelectric response, as such morphological features facilitate the efficient generation and transmission of piezoelectric charges. When the fiber morphology was maintained at an optimal state, the piezoelectric output of PLLA nanofibers increased linearly with the enhancement of α-phase crystallinity. In contrast, heat treatment of the nanofibers induced the formation of α'-phase crystals, and notably, an increase in α'-phase crystallinity led to a significant decrease in piezoelectric performance. Under the optimized electrospinning and post-treatment parameters, the PLLA nanofiber membrane achieved a maximum output voltage of 2.933 V (under the condition of 87.7 N load and 1 Hz frequency), an output current of 766.26 nA, a charge density of 1.95 μC/m², and a maximum output power of 4.23 mW/m². Furthermore, the sensor maintained linearity in the pressure range of 8.3-186.4 kPa, which fully covers the physiological pressure range of human blood vessels, indicating its suitability for vascular pressure monitoring applications. Additional tests using an in vitro vascular simulation device confirmed that the flexible PLLA sensor could effectively perceive cyclic pulsating strains similar to those generated by blood vessel contraction and relaxation.

Conclusion This study clarifies the regulatory mechanisms of the piezoelectric performance of PLLA nanofiber membranes and optimizes such performance via parameter modulation. Specifically, fiber morphology and crystallinity are confirmed as key determinants: smaller fiber diameters without bead-like structures enhance piezoelectric output; with favorable morphology, output increases with α-phase crystallinity, while α'-phase formation after heat treatment reduces piezoelectricity despite higher crystallinity. Under optimal parameters, the PLLA nanofiber membrane achieves 2.933 V output voltage (87.7 N, 1 Hz), 766.26 nA current, 1.95 μC/m² charge density, 4.23 mW/m² maximum output power, and excellent linearity under 8.3-186.4 kPa. In vitro vascular simulation tests verify its feasibility for practical monitoring by effectively sensing cyclic pulsating strain. Collectively, the PLLA-based flexible implantable sensor exhibits excellent sensitivity, stability, and biocompatibility, meeting the demands of real-time continuous postoperative vascular repair monitoring. It thus holds great clinical application potential, offering a novel solution to the limitations of existing clinical monitoring methods.

Objective This study aims to address the limitations of conventional rigid temperature sensors, such as poor flexibility, complex fabrication, and unsuitability for wearable healthcare monitoring. By utilizing laser-induced graphene (LIG) technology on polyimide (PI) substrates, a new low-cost, scalable, and flexible temperature sensor is developed. The primary goal is to enhance sensing performance, mechanical flexibility, and long-term stability, thereby enabling real-time monitoring of human physiological signals in intelligent healthcare and wearable electronics.

Method PI films were pretreated in an alkaline solution to introduce oxygen-containing functional groups to facilitate the subsequent LIG formation. Using a CO₂ laser under optimized conditions for power and scanning speed, porous LIG patterns were fabricated on both PI and modified PI membranes. The prepared LIG was characterized by SEM, XPS, Raman spectroscopy, and sheet resistance tests. Finally, copper electrodes were attached with a conductive silver paste, and the device was encapsulated in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to yield a flexible LIG-based temperature sensor.

Results Alkaline treatment significantly reduced PI surface roughness from 1.91 nm to 0.269 nm and enhanced hydrophilicity, facilitating more uniform LIG formation. SEM images revealed a porous 3D graphene structure with improved uniformity in modified PI-LIG. XPS and Raman analyses confirmed higher graphitization and reduced oxygen content in modified samples, with I_D/I_G ratio decreasing from 1.83 to 0.83. The optimal LIG exhibited a sheet resistance of 18 Ω/□ at 40% laser power and 550 mm/s scan speed. The sensor demonstrated a linear resistance-temperature relationship from 25-75 ℃, with a temperature coefficient of resistance 0.134%/℃ and excellent linearity (R²=0.997 3). It showed rapid response and recovery times, high repeatability over 10 cycles, and stable performance over 10 d. Applications included real-time monitoring of breathing patterns (slow, normal, and rapid breathing) and skin temperature at various body sites (forehead, wrist, and knee), with accurate and consistent readings matching physiological ranges.

Conclusion This research demonstrates a facile and efficient method to fabricate high-performance flexible temperature sensors using LIG technology on alkali-modified PI substrates. The developed device combines excellent linear sensitivity, fast response, repeatability, and long-term stability with low-cost, scalable manufacturing. Its proven ability to monitor both body temperature and respiratory behaviors indicates strong potential for integration into wearable electronics, smart healthcare systems, and personalized medical monitoring. In future work, sensor miniaturization, multi-signal integration, and wireless data transmission may further expand its application prospects, paving the way for advanced intelligent healthcare platforms.

Objective In order to solve problems of existing fabric-based flexible sensors, such as single functionality, complex structure, dependence on external electrodes, and insufficient comfort, this study combines conjugate electrospinning and in-situ polymerization to construct a polyurethane/carbon nanotubes/polypyrrole (PU/CNTs/PPy) composite silver-coated core-spun yarn with core layer electrodes of silver-coated polyamide yarns and the ability to sense pressure, temperature and humidity. The aim is to simplify the sensor structure, enhance its flexibility, wearability and integration, and provide a yarn-level sensing unit basis for the construction of multi-functional smart textiles.

Method The PU/CNTs silver-coated core-spun yarn was prepared by directly coating the surface of silver-coated polyamide yarns with PU/CNTs composite nanofibers using conjugate electrospinning technology. Subsequently, PPy nanoparticles were grown on the surface of PU/CNTs fibers through in-situ polymerization to form the PU/CNTs/PPy composite silver-coated core-spun yarn. The morphology, chemical structure and tensile properties of the yarn were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and mechanical tests, and its resistance response characteristics and wearable application performance to pressure, temperature and humidity stimuli were systematically tested.

Results The results showed that the nanofibers in the PU/CNTs silver-coated core-spun yarn prepared by conjugate electrospinning were orderly arranged along the yarn axis. After in-situ polymerization, PPy nanoparticles were uniformly distributed on the fiber surface and in the fiber gaps, forming a continuous conductive network. Infrared spectra analysis suggested that PU, CNTs and PPy formed a stable composite structure through hydrogen bonds and π-π interactions. The mechanical property test results demonstrated that the tensile strength and elongation at break of the PU/CNTs/PPy composite silver-coated core-spun yarn reached 7.9 MPa and 412%, respectively, which were both improved compared to the PU/CNTs core-spun yarn. After PPy modification, PPy nanoparticles were successfully and uniformly coated on the fiber surface, forming a multi-level conductive network. In pressure sensing, the resistance change rate showed a nonlinear increase with pressure, with a pressure sensitivity of 0.2 kPa^-1 in the low-pressure zone (0-100 kPa), and then gradually decreased in the medium and high-pressure zones, showing a zonal response characteristic. In temperature sensing, the resistance change rate of the PU/CNTs/PPy composite silver-coated core-spun yarn increased with temperature in the range of 20-70 ℃, with a temperature response sensitivity of 0.51%/℃, and remained stable in multiple temperature cycling tests. In humidity sensing, the yarn revealed a clear two-stage response behavior in the range of 20%-80% relative humidity, with a sensitivity of 0.15 in the low-humidity zone (20%-50% relative humidity) and increasing to 0.52 in the high-humidity zone (50%-80% relative humidity), while also demonstrating fast response and recovery characteristics. Based on the above performance, it is believed that the PU/CNTs/PPy composite silver-coated core-spun yarn can identify finger pressing, joint bending and swallowing behaviors in wearable tests, and can be utilized to detect temperature changes and respiratory humidity signals.

Conclusion This study combines conjugate electrospinning and in-situ polymerization to achieve the integration of electrodes and multi-functional sensing units within a single yarn scale, and prepares a PU/CNTs/PPy composite silver-coated core-spun yarn with core layer electrodes of silver-coated yarns. The research results show that the yarn can produce stable and distinguishable electrical responses to pressure, temperature and humidity stimuli while maintaining good mechanical properties. Its sensing ability comes from the synergy of the contact resistance network constructed by CNTs and the response of PPy to thermal and humid environments. This research provides experimental evidence for the structural design and performance regulation of multifunctional yarn-type sensors, and lays a foundation for their further application in wearable monitoring and smart textiles.

Objective This research aims to develop electrode products with high comfort and stability suitable for long-term dynamic surface electromyography (sEMG) monitoring, and to address the limitations of conventional Ag/AgCl gel electrodes in prolonged and dynamic use.

Method Flexible textile electrodes in three sizes (2 cm×2 cm, 3 cm×3 cm, and 4 cm×4 cm) were fabricated by knitting a silver-plated polyamide yarn and a polyamide fiber-polyurethane elastic fiber coated yarn using localized jacquard technology. A systematic evaluation was conducted to assess their electrochemical impedance, skin-electrode contact performance, and sEMG signal quality under different load conditions, as well as their stability during seven days of continuous use under various wearing scenarios.

Results The electrode features a textured surface with a jacquard design to ensure close skin contact. Electrical impedance increased as frequency decreased (182.7 Ω at 10 Hz and 99 Ω at 500 Hz). Contact impedance was reduced by higher applied pressure and moistened skin (using 75% medical alcohol). A 3 cm × 3 cm dimension of the electrode exhibited optimal electromyographic performance, showing signal-to-noise ratios (S_SNR) of 20.1 dB (no load) and 24.5 dB (3 kg load), root-mean-square values (R_RMS) of 0.046 mV and 0.07 mV, and mean power frequencies (f_MPF) of 182 Hz and 173 Hz, which were comparable to conventional Ag/AgCl gel electrodes. The signal remained stable during 40 h continuous wear, and no skin discomfort was reported after 7 d of use. In electromyography monitoring, the R_RMS value increased from 0.05 mV to 0.07 mV, while the f_MPF value decreased from 196 Hz to 179 Hz, consistent to gel electrodes.

Conclusion This study targets the need for comfortable and stable electrodes in long-term dynamic electromyography monitoring. Three sizes of silver-plated polyamide fiber knit electrodes, produced by a localized jacquard knitting process, were systematically evaluated for their electrochemical impedance, skin-electrode contact performance, signal quality under different loads, and long-term wear stability. Results show that the 3 cm × 3 cm electrode delivered the best overall performance. Its electromyographic signal metrics, including signal-to-noise ratio, root-mean-square amplitude, and mean power frequency, were comparable to those of conventional Ag/AgCl gel electrodes, while also offering superior wearing comfort, biocompatibility, and mechanical durability. Thus, the proposed electrode meets the requirements for long-term dynamic monitoring and holds broad application potential in rehabilitation medicines, sports science, and smart wearable devices.

Significance Polyethylene (PE) fiber has established itself as a critical material in the field of medical protection by virtue of its unique combination of high specific strength, intrinsic hydrophobicity, and scalability in manufacturing. The frequent occurrence of public health events and increasing demands for occupational safety have further highlighted the urgent need for high-performance protective materials that balance effective barrier properties, comfort, and environmental durability. However, the inherent biological inertness and non-polar surface of PE limit its functionality in active protection, such as inherent antimicrobial activity. Therefore, developing functionalized PE fibers, especially with enhanced and durable antimicrobial properties, is of great scientific and industrial importance. This review systematically explores modification strategies and application advances, aiming to provide fundamental insights for the development of next-generation medical protective materials. Additionally, it discusses key bottlenecks in durability and manufacturability and outlines future directions toward greener, safer, and scalable functionalization pathways for practial application.

Progress Significant progress has been made in both intrinsic functionalization during fiber spinning and surface modification. Melt spinning, meltblowing, spunbonding, and flash released spinning processes have been optimized to produce PE-based materials with adjustable fiber diameter, pore structure, and barrier performance, meeting requirements for filtration, liquid resistance, and moisture vapor transmission. In particular, flash-spun PE fabrics exhibit unique microfiber membrane network structures, offering high barrier properties and low-linting. In order to impart antimicrobial functionality, researchers have incorporated active agents such as metal nanoparticles (e.g., Ag, Cu) and organic antimicrobial compounds into PE by blending or in-situ composite spinning. Simultaneously, surface modification techniques, including plasma treatment, chemical grafting, and coating with antimicrobial layers, have been adopted to enhance surface activity and introduce biocidal motifs without compromising bulk properties. These modifications significantly improve the ability to inhibit microbial growth, adding an essential active protective layer to the inherent passive barrier function. Moreover, emerging approaches integrate multiple functions in one step, improving process compatibility and durability. Greater attention is also being paid to uniform dispersion, controlled release, and maintaining comfort, supporting translation to medical protective fabrics.

Conclusion and Prospect Despite promising advances, challenges remain in achieving strong interfacial bonding of functional agents, long-term durability under repeated washing and mechanical wear, and scale production without compromising performance or cost-performance ratio. Future efforts should focus on designing multifunctional modification strategies that combine enhanced antimicrobial performance with other desirable properties such as comfort, biodegradability, and smart response capabilities. The development of novel antimicrobial agents with high efficiency and low toxicity, along with advanced spinning and finishing technologies that enable uniform and stable functionalization, has attracted the attention of researchers. In particular, greater emphasis should be placed on optimizing the compatibility between functional additives and the polyethylene matrix, as well as establishing reliable evaluation protocols that reflect real-use scenarios in medical protection. Standardized testing of wash resistance, abrasion resistance, and potential functional leaching will be essential for comparing materials across studies and guiding product development. Interdisciplinary collaboration is crucial to accelerating the practical application and transformation of functional polyethylene fibers, and will provide a material foundation for building a more efficient and reliable global public health protection system.

Significance Individual thermal protection materials are core equipment for ensuring the safety of firefighters, workers in high-risk industries, and military personnel when working in extremely high-temperature environments. Its performance not only affects the survival safety of personnel under extreme conditions, but also directly influences its combat flexibility and continuous combat capability. With the complexity and diversity of high-temperature working environments, conventional thermal protection materials are difficult to meet the actual needs. Based on the principle of thermal protection, this research systematically reviews the research status, performance evaluation methods and application fields of various thermal protection materials, and conducts in-depth discussions on their future development trends and challenges, aiming to provide theoretical support and direction guidance for the research and application of related materials.

Progress Individual thermal protection materials, according to their protection mechanisms, can be classified into three types, heat insulation type, barrier type and reflective type. In order to address the multiple thermal threats such as heat conduction, heat convection and heat radiation coexisting in real fire scenarios, the materials are usually combined in use to construct a multi-layer protection system. In recent years, significant improvement has been made in enhancing the thermal and moisture comfort performance of protection materials by blending intrinsically flame-retardant fibers with modified flame-retardant fibers for spinning. Some researchers have introduced natural fibers to enhance the permeability of fabrics, thereby achieving a coordinated improvement in protective performance and comfort. In addition, the emergence of new thermal protection materials such as phase change materials, aerogels, shape memory materials and biomimetic structures enables individual thermal protection systems to provide excellent thermal protection performance while also being lightweight and comfortable. Deficiencies were identified in the existing performance evaluation systems for individual thermal protection materials. Clarifying the people-clothing-environment interaction is crucial for optimizing material design and balancing thermal protection with comfort. The comprehensive application status analysis shows that only by building a corresponding protection system in accordance with the specific needs of different fields can better protection performance be demonstrated in high-temperature environments such as emergency fire protection, industrial protection, and military operations.

Conclusion and Prospect In the future, research on individual thermal protection materials will be developed in the direction of multi-mode collaborative systems such as intelligence, multi-functionality and greenness. The focus will be on the heat transfer mechanism of the human body-clothing-environment system under the coupling effect of multiple physical fields, laying a theoretical foundation for precise and efficient thermal protection. By introducing cutting-edge technologies such as nanomaterials, aerogels and flexible electronics, materials have been able to achieve dynamic thermal management and monitor the physiological state of the wearer in real time. In terms of performance evaluation, although a multi-dimensional comprehensive evaluation system has been established, it is still necessary to combine the biological response indicators of the human body in extremely complex environments to more realistically simulate the actual usage conditions. Different application scenarios such as fire protection, industry, military, and aerospace have put forward differentiated demands for materials, which will further drive the evolution of material systems towards customization and modularization to meet the diverse actual protection needs. Overall, the core challenge in this field lies in balancing protective performance with wearing comfort and driving the transformation of technology from passive protection to active intelligent protection. The ultimate goal is not only to efficiently resist extreme thermal hazards, but also to significantly enhance the thermal physiological comfort, mobility and overall work efficiency of the wearer, truly realizing the safety protection concept of people-oriented.

Significance Firefighter protective clothing serves as a critical barrier for firefighters operating in extreme thermal hazard environments. Consequently, accurate prediction and optimization of the thermal protective performance of firefighter protective clothing present a core scientific challenge. The physical experiments provide direct performance test data, but their applications are restricted by destructive nature, high cost, long duration, and the difficulty in replicating complex dynamic conditions. Numerical simulations gain computational efficiency but face bottlenecks from their reliance on precise boundary conditions and high computational costs as models grow more complex. The combination of these bottlenecks necessitates a new research paradigm and data-driven machine learning provides promising solution. These algorithms enable learning of high-dimensional mapping relationships from large-scale experimental or simulation data. They could therefore predict outcomes without directly solving complex systems of heat and mass transfer differential equations. This data-driven approach demonstrates high possibility of effectively overcoming the efficiency and accuracy limitations that traditional methods face when dealing with complex dynamic conditions, and shows immense potential for performance assessment of firefighter protective clothing and the dynamic prediction of human burn injury risk.

Progress In machine learning algorithms, the attributes of data instances are referred to as ″features″. The input features cover three major dimensions, which are fire environment parameters, physical properties of fabrics, and human physiological indicators. The output response comprises quantitative measures of the performance of firefighter protective clothing, such as the second-degree skin burn time. Machine learning algorithms could refine the mapping relationship between input features and output responses, breaking through the limitation of linear assumptions. The data sources for machine learning algorithms are derived from physical experiments, literature compilations, and numerical simulations. The precise identification and engineering of key features help to improve the performance of machine learning models. The black-box nature of machine learning algorithms significantly reduces time costs and improves computational efficiency, but input data of poor quality may cause the model to produce biased results. The performance of these algorithms is evaluated based on the accuracy of prediction results, goodness of fit, and stability, with studies demonstrating that machine learning models outperform empirical equations. Furthermore, machine learning facilitates an emerging research direction, i.e. intelligent inverse design, which employs algorithms to find optimal fabric parameters that satisfy specific protective performance requirements. This approach offers a framework for the intelligent inverse design of firefighter protective clothing.

Conclusion and Prospect The prediction and design methods for the thermal protective performance of firefighter protective clothing are undergoing an evolutionary process, transitioning from physical experiments and numerical simulations toward data-driven and intelligent directions. At present, data-driven research has made practical advancements, but several challenges remain. First, collecting data from firefighters' live burn exercises involves high risks and substantial costs. Future research on the intelligent design of firefighter protective clothing can integrate experimentally validated high-fidelity numerical models or computational fluid dynamics heat transfer numerical simulations to generate virtual training data for multiple working conditions. Second, existing design paradigms lack a fully intelligent inverse design capability tailored to specific protection objectives. Future research could develop personalized inverse design platforms constrained by prior knowledge and driven by data. Finally, machine learning algorithms possess high application value in the areas of performance prediction for firefighter protective clothing and firefighter training. Exploring a synergistic pathway that combines ″physics-informed priors, data-driven models, and artificial intelligence agents″, and constructing digital twin systems, is expected to advance the design of firefighter protective clothing in a more precise, practical, and intelligent direction. This will provide key scientific support for development of intelligent firefighter protective clothing and next-generation safety assurance systems.

Objective Domestic research on reusable decontamination primarily focuses on the relationship between fabric processing techniques and the number of reuse cycles. However, there remains a lack of systematic investigation into the influences of varying decontamination conditions on the reusability and decontamination resistance of protective fabrics. Further in-depth study on the synergistic influence of decontamination parameters, particularly decontamination conditions and frequency, is an important direction for future research. This study investigates how repeated application of different decontamination and sterilization methods would affect the decontamination and sterilization resistance of reusable protective fabrics, aiming to provide scientific references and a theoretical foundation for advancing research in this field. Additionally, this study supports the development of reusable non-surgical medical composite protective clothing that comprehensively ensures the safety of both patients and healthcare personnel.

Method Two self-developed materials, i.e., nylon-based laminated composite fabric and polyester-based laminated composite fabric, were selected for evaluation. Four decontamination and sterilization methods were designed for repeated treatment testing, which are high-temperature moist heat decontamination and sterilization (80 ℃), steam (121 ℃), 500 mg/L sodium hypochlorite solution decontamination and sterilization, and 2 000 mg/L sodium hypochlorite solution. Through analysis of protective performance, comfort-related properties, and mechanical characteristics after multiple washing and decontamination cycles, the durability and resistance of the composite fabrics were assessed. By comparing the impacts of repeated decontamination and sterilization using different methods on fabric performance, recommendations were provided for optimal decontamination strategies tailored to specific types of protective fabrics.

Results Following repeated decontamination and sterilization using different methods, the polyurethane (PUR) adhesive dots of the composite fabric exhibited a certain degree of bonding strength reduction due to exposure to water, disinfectants, and elevated temperatures. No significant changes were observed in the inner layer fabric, and no delamination occurred in the composite structure after decontamination and sterilization. For nylon laminated composite fabric, the outer fabric structure underwent displacement and deformation after multiple washing and decontamination and sterilization cycles, resulting in increased exposure of the polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) film and a consequent reduction in protection for the film layer. In contrast, the outer structure of polyester laminated composite fabric remained tight and stable after repeated treatments, effectively preserving the integrity of the PTFE film layer. After repeated decontamination and sterilization, both nylon and polyester composite fabrics showed varying degrees of change in protective performance, comfort properties, and mechanical characteristics. The test results are summarized as follows. For protective performance, no delamination was observed in the composite fabric after 25 cycles of high-temperature wet heat decontamination and sterilization (80 ℃), steam decontamination and sterilization at 121 ℃, and repeated washing with sodium hypochlorite. Dimensional stability remained largely unchanged and filtration efficiency remained above 99.99%. However, hydrostatic pressure demonstrated a decrease, indicating reduced resistance to liquid penetration. The solid-liquid contact angle of the fabric surface was diminished, although it remained above 90°after repeated treatments, confirming that the fabric retains its surface water-repellent functionality. In terms of comfort performance, air permeability showed no significant variation after repeated decontamination and sterilization. Moisture permeability of nylon-based composites exhibited a declining trend, whereas that of polyester-based composites increased slightly. Some curling or deformation may occur after high-temperature wet heat (80 ℃) and steam decontamination and sterilization treatments, but this can be corrected through ironing or similar post-processing methods. Fading caused by repeated sodium hypochlorite treatment was found irreversible. With regard to mechanical properties, repeated sodium hypochlorite decontamination and sterilization resulted in the most pronounced degradation of breaking strength, with a maximum reduction of 66.44%, significantly exceeding the 27.07% maximum loss observed under high-temperature wet heat and steam decontamination and sterilization conditions.

Conclusion After 25 cycles of repeated decontamination and sterilization via high-temperature moist heat decontamination and sterilization, steam decontamination and sterilization, and sodium hypochlorite decontamination and sterilization treatments, evaluations on dimensional stability, air permeability, filtration efficiency, moisture permeability, and hydrostatic pressure indicate that the composite fabrics could still meet relevant standards for protective apparel. Based on a comprehensive comparison of performance degradation across different decontamination and sterilization methods, it is recommended that for low-risk contamination involving bacterial vegetative cells, high-temperature moist heat decontamination and sterilization (80 ℃) be prioritized. For high-risk scenarios involving prion-contaminated materials, pressure steam decontamination and sterilization is strongly recommended.

Objective Fibers and textiles are essential materials used across many application fields, but most of them present significant fire hazards due to their inherent flammability. Although surface treatments can impart flame retardancy, the limited durability of most coatings restricts their practical utility. This study aims to develop a highly durable flame-retardant coating for cotton fabrics by leveraging strong cation-π interactions to enhance the adhesion between the coating and the substrate. Through this strategy, the coating is designed to provide not only effective flame retardancy but also long-lasting protection capable of withstanding mechanical abrasion.

Method In this study, a UV-initiated polymerization strategy was employed to synthesize poly(acryloyloxyethyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride) (PADBAC) and poly(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) (PMPC). Vinyl phosphonic acid (VA) was further incorporated to formulate a composite flame-retardant coating (PA₆PM/VA_6%). Within the coating matrix, the benzene rings of PADBAC interact with the quaternary ammonium cations of PMPC through cation-π interactions, thereby enhancing adhesion strength and interfacial adhesion. The coating was then applied to cotton fabrics, followed by characterization of adhesion strength, flame retardancy, and mechanical stability.

Results Cotton fabric characterization showed that the PA₆PM/VA_6% coating exhibited good adhesion, flame retardancy, and durability. First, benefiting from the designed cation-π interactions between the benzene rings in PADBAC and the quaternary ammonium cations in PMPC, the coating demonstrated strong interfacial adhesion, achieving an adhesion strength of 2.35 MPa. These interactions effectively enhanced both the adhesion strength of the coating and its adhesion to the fiber substrate, while further enabling reliable adhesion to a broad range of surface types. The PA₆PM/VA_6% coating also demonstrated good flame-retardancy in vertical burning tests. Upon removal of the ignition source, the coated fabric self-extinguished, exhibiting a damage length of only 7.5 cm, and showed a high limiting oxygen index (LOI) value of 35%. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed a synergistic mechanism during thermal exposure, which is that VA and PMPC can enhance char formation, promoting the development of a dense and expanded char layer. This char served as an effective physical barrier, insulating the underlying polymer from heat and oxygen, thereby reinforcing the flame-retardant effect. Most importantly, the PA₆PM/VA_6%coating demonstrated remarkable mechanical stability. Even after 1 000 standard rubbing cycles, the coated fabric retained its self-extinguishing performance, with the LOI value remaining above 28.0%. These results indicate excellent wear resistance and highlight the coating's promising potential for practical applications in protective clothing, rail transit and outdoor tents.

Conclusion This study developed a highly durable phosphorus-nitrogen synergistic flame-retardant protective coating based on cation-π interactions. PADBAC and PMPC were synthesized by UV-initiated polymerization, and VA was incorporated to formulate a flame-retardant composite coating (PA₆PM/VA_6%). Within this coating matrix, the benzene rings in PADBAC were pound to engage in cation-π interactions with the quaternary ammonium cations of the PMPC segments, effectively reinforcing both adhesions strength of the coating and its adhesion to the fiber surface, resulting in an adhesion strength of 2.35 MPa. Cotton fabrics modified with this coating exhibited self-extinguishing behavior upon flame removal in vertical burning tests, with a damaged char length of only 7.5 cm, and demonstrated a high LOI value of 35%. During burning, VA and PMPC synergistically promoted char formation, generating a dense and expanded carbonaceous layer that further enhanced flame retardancy. Moreover, after 1 000 rubbing cycles, the treated fabric maintained an LOI value above 28.0%, indicating excellent abrasion resistance and durable flame-retardant performance. This coating shows promising potential for practical applications in protective clothing, rail transit, construction, and public safety.

Significance Apparel textiles act as a vital interface between the human body and the surrounding environment, not only regulating the exchange of energy (e.g., heat and light) and substances (e.g., water vapor and dust) but also functioning as a barrier against pathogenic microorganisms. Critically, this antimicrobial function must be moderate in inhibiting growth of harmful microorganisms while preserving the symbiotic flora on human skin, which is essential for maintaining a healthy micro-ecological balance. From the perspective of microbiomics, the human body is a ″superorganism″ co-constructed by the human genome and symbiotic microbial genes. With the continuous improvement of people's living standards and health awareness, the demand for high-performance antibacterial and deodorant textiles is growing rapidly, making it urgent to systematically understand the emerging technologies and clarify development directions, which is the core significance of this study.

Progress This study systematically reviews the latest progress in antimicrobial and deodorant textile technologies. It first points out the limitations of traditional technologies. Blend spinning leads to the waste of antimicrobial agents (only surface agents are effective) and reduces fiber spinnability, while fabric finishing often requires cross-linking agents, resulting in hard hand feel and environmental pollution. Two advanced technologies with great promotion potential are then analyzed in detail. Supercritical fluid technology (using CO₂ under critical conditions of 31.1 ℃ and 7.38 MPa) enables the precise fixation of antimicrobial agents on the shallow surface of fibers, with a dosage of only a few thousandths of the fiber mass. A case study by Nanjing Hesu Group shows that cotton treated with this technology retains excellent antibacterial effects even after mercerization, and the treated cashmere maintains a soft hand feel. Electron beam irradiation grafting technology achieves stable covalent bonding between antibacterial agents and fibers, with some products maintaining over 70% antimicrobial rate after 150 wash cycles. The key is to balance the irradiation dose, and it is evidenced that cotton loses 29.8% strength at 33 kGy under pre-irradiation, while polyester only loses 3.8% strength at 50 kGy. Additionally, the bionic antimicrobial idea of constructing nano-structures (e.g., 80 nm-diameter silicon pillars) on fiber surfaces is discussed, which achieves targeted microbial resistance by mechanically damaging cell membranes, though it is still in the exploratory stage.

Conclusion and Prospect Supercritical CO₂ technology has been verified by the market and is a mature and promotable technology, effectively solving the problems of conventional processes. In terms of electron beam irradiation technology, with its outstanding long-term antibacterial performance, dose parameters need to be further optimized in order to be applied to different fiber types. For electromagnetic radiation technologies such as microwave and ultraviolet equipment improvement is necessary to overcome the limitation of insufficient penetration depth. The nano-structure antimicrobial technology, as an effective way to achieve targeted and moderate antibacterial effects, is of great scientific significance but faces challenges in preparation processes and mechanism research. Future research success relies on the strengthening of interdisciplinary cooperation among textile science, microbiology, and nanotechnology, focusing on solving the key issues of fiber surface nano-structure preparation and the matching mechanism between structures and different microorganisms, thereby breaking the dilemma of ″indiscriminate sterilization″ and promoting the high-quality development of the antibacterial textile industry.

Significance Global climate change has led to more frequent and intense extreme heat waves and cold waves. Personal temperature-constant thermal management fabrics can upgrade conventional passive protective fabrics into active and self-adaptive "second skin", enabling the human body to remain comfortable at different external temperatures. Ordinary personal thermal management fabrics are often designed with specific functions for particular environments. However, in actual wear, human activities and environmental temperatures are constantly fluctuating, such as when entering an air-conditioned room from outdoors or when experiencing a sudden increase in body heat during exercise. In such cases, unidirectional functions may fail or even be counterproductive. Therefore, how to achieve both heating and cooling functions on the same fabric and respond dynamically to the external environment is a core issue in the field of personal thermal management. Personal thermal management fabrics that can switch between heating and cooling functions and maintain a constant temperature (hereinafter referred to as constant-temperature thermal management fabrics) have a core value in dynamically maintaining the relative stability of the human body temperature, rather than merely enhancing heat dissipation or insulation in a single direction.

Progress Temperature-constant thermal management fabrics achieve intelligent regulation of the human thermal environment by dynamically adjusting the physical or chemical properties of the fabric. The switching between cooling and heating functions typically relies on active or passive changes in the fabric's structure or performance. Phase change temperature-constant thermal management fabrics are evolving from a single "passive energy storage" mode towards the directions of multi-functional coupling and high-efficiency encapsulation technologies. Radiative temperature-constant thermal management fabrics have the potential to be integrated with functions such as electromagnetic shielding, sensing and thermoelectric conversion, and multi-functional integration has become a new development trend for radiative thermal management fabrics. In recent years, the combination of directional sweat transport with dynamic heating and cooling has emerged as a new research hotspot in the development of moisture-regulating temperature-constant thermal management fabrics. Multi-modal temperature-constant thermal management fabrics have broken through the single regulation function of heat conduction or thermal radiation, which integrate flexible sensing arrays and utilize brain-like computing to perceive microclimate changes on the skin surface in real time, thus achieving nonlinear and regionally differentiated precise temperature control. Future research on temperature-constant thermal management fabrics needs to seek breakthroughs through interdisciplinary collaboration in areas such as intelligent responsive materials, scalable preparation processes, and system integration.

Conclusion and Prospect Temperature-constant thermal management fabrics can dynamically maintain the stability of the micro-environment temperature of the human body and significantly enhance the thermal comfort and health safety guarantee of the wearer in a variable environment. The focus is on developing a new generation of intelligent materials that can autonomously respond to the external environment or human body conditions (such as temperature, humidity, sweat, and bioelectrical signals), so as to achieve an adaptive close-loop temperature control system without human intervention. Deep integration of thermal management functions with health monitoring, energy harvesting, information display and other technologies should be promoted in order to build a multi-functional intelligent textile platform with self-powering capabilities. The future research should focus on resolving the core contradiction between comfort, durability and large-scale production, and the solutions should be scaled up from the laboratory to industrialization through low-cost processes and green materials, ultimately achieving large-scale application in fields such as medical health, special protection and daily wear.

Objective Chronic wounds are characterized by persistent bacterial infection and excessive reactive oxygen species accumulation, which impede the healing process. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)/polycaprolactone (PLGA/PCL) electrospun membranes exhibit limited antibacterial efficacy despite demonstrating favorable dimensional stability and mechanical properties. This study addresses these limitations by fabricating a dual-functional fiber-based dressing with integrated antibacterial and antioxidant properties to promote chronic wound regeneration.

Method Curcumin-loaded PLGA/PCL fiber membranes (FM-Cur) with varying curcumin (Cur) mass concentrations were fabricated using electrospinning technology. The morphology and fiber diameter distribution were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy. Chemical constitution and crystallinity were examined using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction, respectively. Thermal properties were assessed using differential scanning calorimetry. Surface wettability was determined through water contact angle measurements. Antioxidant activity was evaluated by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assays, while antibacterial efficacy was tested using colony counting methods.

Results All FM-Cur samples exhibited well-defined fibrous morphologies with uniform diameter distributions. Hydrophilicity significantly increased with Cur loading, evidenced by water contact angle reduction from (134.0±0.5)° (FM) to (87.5±1.6)° (FM-10Cur). Quantitative analysis revealed that both absorbance and drug loading capacity (DLC) values in aqueous-organic solvent systems (PBS/ethanol) and pure ethanol increased proportionally with Cur content. Due to the inherent hydrophobicity of Cur, DLC and encapsulation efficiency values measured in PBS/ethanol systems were significantly lower than those in ethanol. Authentic drug loading parameters aligned closely with ethanol-based determinations, where FM-2.5Cur and FM-5Cur achieved encapsulation rate > 97%, confirming the fiber carrier's efficacy in enhancing Cur bioavailability while enabling sustained release, a critical feature for chronic wound management. The optimized FM-5Cur formulation demonstrated exceptional dual functionality, exhibiting over 90% antibacterial rate against S. aureus and over 80% DPPH radical scavenging capacity. This synergistic performance effectively mitigates persistent inflammation in chronic wounds, concurrently neutralizing bacterial infection and oxidative stress, thereby accelerating tissue regeneration processes.

Conclusion Electrospun PLGA/PCL/Cur membranes are established as dual-functional wound dressings through a single-step fabrication process. The membranes demonstrate clinically relevant antibacterial and antioxidant capabilities, with encapsulation efficiency exceeding 97% ensuring optimal therapeutic delivery. Key performance metrics include over 90% antibacterial rate against S. aureus and over 80% DPPH scavenging capacity, directly addressing critical healing barriers in chronic wounds. Crucially, the fabrication method preserves structural integrity without compromising bioactivity. These results support clinical translation potential for diabetic ulcer and burn wound management, where concurrent infection and oxidative stress impede healing.

Objective Bamboo pulp fibers are a type of regenerated cellulose fiber, produced from bamboo pulp by wet spinning method, and the bamboo pulp is cellulose substance extracted from natural bamboo through a series of chemical processes. Bamboo pulp fibers have excellent properties such as moisture absorption, permeable properties, and good antibacterial properties. However, the antibacterial mechanism of bamboo pulp fibers has not been fully elucidated yet. The objective of this study is to explore the antibacterial activity and functional components of bamboo pulp fibers, thereby establishing a theoretical foundation for the development and practical application of related products.

Method The shaking flask method was employed to determine the antibacterial rate of bamboo pulp fibers. The morphological structure, elemental composition, and chemical group composition of fibers were tested by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), organic elemental analysis and infrared spectroscopy. In order to further seperate antibacterial components in the bamboo pulp fibers, the method of dissolving bamboo pulp fibers with N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) and alkali/urea were used, then cellulose was precipitated in a non-solvent. Finally, the bamboo pulp fibers were degraded by sulfuric acid hydrolysis. A two-step sulfuric acid degradation method was adopted, and bamboo fibers were degraded with a concentrated sulfuric acid solution at low temperature, followed by dilute acid at an elevated temperature. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was adopted to separate and analyze the components in the bamboo pulp fibers.

Results The SEM results showed that uneven grooves and cracks appeared in the surface of bamboo pulp fibers, making the fibers dry, which is unfavorable for bacterial survival and reproduction. Organic elemental analysis results indicated that bamboo pulp fibers are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen elements, together with 0.20% nitrogen element. The infrared spectroscopy results indicated that bamboo pulp fibers have the characteristic absorption peaks of cellulose. After extraction with solvents such as methanol, ethanol and ethyl acetate, the antibacterial rate of bamboo pulp fibers decreased slightly but remained 70% or above, indicating that the antibacterial components in bamboo pulp fibers were not effectively separated. The regenerated cellulose from bamboo pulp fibers dissolved by NMMO had an antibacterial rate of 48.20% against Escherichia coli, while that dissolved by the alkali/urea system had an antibacterial rate of 67.60% against Escherichia coli, indicating that the antibacterial components in bamboo pulp fibers were not completely isolated, which proved that some antibacterial components were tightly bound to cellulose. The experiments on degradation of bamboo pulp fibers demonstrated that the sugar yield was the highest when the sulfuric acid concentration was 53%. Barium salt was added to remove sulfate ions from the bamboo fiber degradation solution. The GC-MS results analysis indicated that the hydrolysate of bamboo pulp fibers contained 27 compounds including carbohydrates, aldehydes, phenols, ketones and other substances. Among them, 5 chemical components, namely furfuryl alcohol, furfural, 2-undecan-one, maltol, and 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde, had been confirmed to possess antibacterial activity and are the main antibacterial components in bamboo pulp fibers.

Conclusion The study on the antibacterial activity and antibacterial components of bamboo pulp fibers demonstrated that bamboo pulp fibers exert a stable inhibitory effect on Escherichia coli. The antibacterial activity of bamboo pulp fibers originates from the synergistic effect of multiple antibacterial components and the micromorphological structure. The study on the antibacterial activity and antibacterial components of bamboo pulp fibers provides a theoretical basis for the development of bamboo pulp fiber products.

Objective This study presents an novel technological approach for preparing antimicrobial fibers by integrating oligomers poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) with a supercritical fluid. The objective is to develop antimicrobial fibers that exhibit both high antimicrobial rate and wash resistance. Through this integration, the fibers maintain their functional properties even after repeated washing, thereby enhancing their durability and practical applicability.

Method The molecular structures and functional groups of both PHBV and its derived oligomers (OPHB) were characterized using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. In accordance with the Disinfection Technical Specification (2002 edition), the minimum inhibitory concentration and safety profile of OPHB were systematically evaluated. Antimicrobial fiber was processed by supercritical fluid technology, and its antimicrobial function comes from OPHB. The physical properties of the fibers were assessed both before and after the processing. Subsequently, the processed fibers were subjected to 50 washing cycles in compliance with the Chinese textile standard FZ/T 73023—2006. The antimicrobial rate of the processed fibers was quantitatively determined before and after washing, in accordance with the testing protocol specified in GB/T 20944.3—2008.

Results The structural characteristics of OPHB were investigated using FT-IR spectroscopy and NMR spectroscopy. The analytical results confirmed that OPHB is an oligomeric derivative of PHBV. OPHB demonstrated minimum inhibitory concentration of 5 000 mg/L against both E. coli (a gram-negative bacterium) and S. aureus (a gram-positive bacterium) through antimicrobial susceptibility testing. This comparable efficacy across bacterial classes underscores its broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. Comprehensive safety evaluations further demonstrated that OPHB is non-toxic, non-irritating to skin, and non-mutagenic. Antimicrobial fibers were fabricated by applying the supercritical fluid technology and OPHB to a range of common textile substrates, including cotton, viscose, Modal, and polyester. At an OPHB content of 0.5%, all treated fibers achieved antimicrobial rates exceeding 90%. Increasing the OPHB concentration to 1% further enhanced performance, yielding near-complete inhibition rate (approaching 100%). Notably, after undergoing 50 standardized washing cycles in accordance with FZ/T 73023—2006, the antimicrobial rate of the treated fibers remained above 90%, thereby demonstrating exceptional wash durability and long-term functional stability. Mechanical integrity assessments confirmed that the processing technology did not adversely affect physical and mechanical properties of the fiber. Specifically, no statistically significant changes were observed in linear density, tensile strength, or elongation at break, indicating that the structural integrity of the fibers was fully preserved during processing. Furthermore, leaching of antimicrobial components was evaluated by the inhibition zone test. All treated fibers exhibited negligible inhibition zones (D<1), confirming a non-leaching mechanism of action. Finally, textile fabrics produced through standard industrial processes, including spinning, weaving, and dyeing of fibers, maintained high antimicrobial performance. These fabrics exhibited antimicrobial rates of approximately 90% against three distinct bacterial strains, both before and after repeated washing, highlighting the robustness and practical applicability of the developed technology.

Conclusion As an oligomer derived from PHBV, OPHB combines safety with high antimicrobial rate, demonstrating excellent antimicrobial activity even at low concentrations. The supercritical fluid technology for OPHB loading is applicable to diverse fiber substrates, yielding antimicrobial fibers with outstanding long-lasting washing resistance while maintaining mechanical properties nearly identical to untreated fibers. OPHB-based antimicrobial fibers function via a non-leaching mechanism, minimizing potential risks to human skin and making them suitable for intimate apparel and similar textiles. Fabrics produced from OPHB antimicrobial fibers through full-process operations, including spinning, weaving, and dyeing, retain superior antimicrobial performance and washing resistance.

Objective To address the inherent disadvantages of natural colored cotton, including short fiber length, low breaking tenacity and poor spinnability, as well as the unclear antibacterial regulation mechanism of blended yarns from various colored cotton varieties, Antheraea pernyi staple fiber (APF) was blended with natural colored cotton to prepare composite blended yarns. This study was intended to enhance the spinnability and yarn-forming properties of colored cotton via APF blending, reveal the regulation law of colored cotton varieties on antibacterial performance of blended yarns, and supply theoretical and experimental references for high-value utilization of natural colored cotton in green skin-friendly textiles.

Method Three kinds of 29.5 tex blended yarns, namely brown cotton fiber (BCF)/APF (70/30), green cotton fiber (GCF)/APF (70/30) and white cotton fiber (CF)/APF (70/30), were manufactured by conventional cotton carding spinning process. The 70/30 blending ratio was determined by preliminary experiments, which maintained the inherent environmental-friendly characteristics of colored cotton, improved spinnability efficiently by introducing APF, and balanced yarn functionality and industrial production cost. The microstructure, tensile properties and yarn quality indexes were systematically tested and characterized. The influence of intrinsic properties of colored cotton on yarn quality was investigated, and the antibacterial discrepancy and corresponding intrinsic mechanism of colored cotton/APF blended yarns were emphatically analyzed.

Results The results indicated that 30% APF could effectively compensate for the inferior yarn-forming properties induced by inherent defects of natural colored cotton. High proportion of colored cotton deteriorated yarn breaking tenacity, breaking elongation and evenness, while increased yarn hairiness, and GCF presented the most adverse influence. Benefiting from the reinforcement effect of APF, comprehensive properties of all blended yarns fully met subsequent textile processing requirements. Obvious differences in antibacterial property existed among different colored cotton/APF systems, and BCF/APF yarn exhibited far better antibacterial activity than GCF/APF. Such difference originated from diverse antibacterial components in colored cotton: brown cotton contained abundant condensed tannins, which produced synergistic antibacterial effect with sericin in APF, whereas green cotton was dominated by flavonoids with relatively weak antibacterial capacity. Under identical spinning parameters, the breaking tenacity of BCF/APF yarn reached 11.87 cN/dtex, superior to 9.14 cN/dtex of GCF/APF yarn, together with lower hairiness, reflecting superior spinnability and processing adaptability. In addition, BCF/APF yarn showed outstanding antibacterial performance against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, with antibacterial rate above 95%.

Conclusion Although inherent defects of natural colored cotton negatively affect yarn performance, 30% APF blending can effectively alleviate these adverse effects. BCF/APF blended yarn possesses satisfactory comprehensive quality and prominent antibacterial performance. This study clarifies the antibacterial regulation mechanism of colored cotton varieties, and provides a feasible technical scheme for natural colored cotton application in green textiles. The developed blended yarn enjoys promising application prospects in green eco-friendly skin-friendly fabrics and functional textiles, and is conducive to the sustainable development of green textile industry and the realization of China's Dual Carbon Strategy.

Objective Visually impaired groups face difficulties in accurately wearing dining accessories without visual assistance, and the dining accessories are seen with problems such as insufficient splash protection, poor stain resistance, and low stability. In order to solve these problems, this study identifies key barriers of dining accessories and translates them into actionable functional requirements and design points. This study prioritizes operability for independent donning and doffing, resistance to soup and oil stains, stable wear during standing and bending, and comfort with daily aesthetics.

Method A mixed-method approach was used. From April to September 2024, focus-group discussions and in-depth interviews were conducted, together with 42 valid online questionnaires and six sets (18 sessions) of real-world dining experiments. Multi-platform market research further informed functional requirements. The Kano model with Better-Worse coefficients was applied to prioritize needs. CLO3D simulation, pattern and darting trials, and prototype garment testing were then adopted to verify structural rationality and feasibility. The prototype bib adopted protective functional materials: a soft, leak-resistant fabric was adopted at the neck and upper chest to block soup leakage, and a waterproof and oil-resistant material was adopted at the chest area to enhance protection against soup and oil splashes.

Results Results show that the main barriers faced by visually impaired groups in dining contexts include difficulties in color recognition and aesthetic coordination, delayed awareness of stains and inconvenient cleaning, difficulty in quickly locating and operating bib structures without visual cues, and restricted personalization and aesthetic expression. Kano analysis indicated that ″easy-to-clean, stain-resistant fabrics″ and ″hook-and-loop/magnetic closures″ were the must-have attributes, and ″convenience of assistive tools″ was a one-dimensional attribute. Accordingly, stain resistance, spilling protection, and convenient donning and doffing were identified as the priority needs. A shawl-style accessible bib was proposed, adopting a curved neckline and rounded edges with a magnetic closure. Users wear the bib by draping it over the shoulders and aligning the curved neckline; the magnetic closure secures it in place, allowing one-handed donning without straps and relying on the bib's own weight for stability. A stable, slightly upturned curve was formed at the chest-abdomen transition, and the upturned edge effectively delays and blocks the downward movement of soup stains and oil droplets, reducing overflow risk. CLO 3D virtual simulation and prototype verification showed that when worn on the front side, the slightly curved front edge helps collect and block spilled soup, while when worn in reverse, the shoulder-strap pocket flap creates a sailor-collar-like visual effect, improving social acceptability for everyday wear. Performance tests showed a soup-stain blocking delay time of more than 3 s, a greater than 40% increase in liquid flow-guidance efficiency, and a 65% reduction in stain overflow area.

Conclusion The research showed that the bib was markedly unstable without added weight (standing 12%, bending 28%, jumping 95%). With increasing weight, stability was improved. With a weight addition of 50 g, standing/bending were basically stable, while jumping still resulted in a 15% drop rate and the fit remained comfortable, whereas with 100 g weight addition, the drop rate fell to 0-2% but slight constriction occurred. With 150 g weight addition, the drop rate dropped to 0%, yet about 60% of users reported moderate discomfort. Considering both stability and comfort, 50-100 g was identified as the preferred range, and 80 g was selected as the balanced value. Overall, the product met the expected targets in protective performance and stability and gained user recognition of its basic functions. This study not only verified the feasibility of the accessible bib design in protective performance and ease of use, but also proposed multidimensional directions for optimization. Future work will continue to balance comfort, functional expansion, and social acceptance, promoting sustainable productization and industrialization.

Significance Global acceleration of population aging has caused the increasing burden arising from chronic diseases. The transition toward a "health-centered" medical model, the development of wearable health intervention technologies that integrate comfort, functionality, and intelligence have become key directions in textile science and technology. Knitted structures, owing to their excellent three-dimensional formability, high elasticity, and structural designability, are evolving from conventional apparel materials into multifunctional health carriers capable of sensing, responding, and regulating. They show broad application prospects in health monitoring, sports protection, and biomedical engineering.

Progress In recent years, knitting technology has evolved from a conventional textile manufacturing process into a core platform for functional integration by leveraging its inherent structural programmability. This study reviews the cutting-edge advancements of knitting technology across three major domains: sports health, smart wearables, and biomedical applications. It highlights key technologies such as Tricot warp knitting, jacquard patterning, and seamless weft knitting, emphasizing their role in supporting the multifunctional and structurally optimized design of high-performance sportswear. It provides an in-depth analysis of the central role played by flat weft knitting technology, particularly in the monolithic integration of flexible sensing units and the development of self-powered systems for physiological monitoring. Furthermore, it clarifies the synergistic mechanism between deep learning algorithms and knitted sensing systems, revealing the potential of their integration to achieve a critical leap from physical signal acquisition to behavioral intent recognition. Additionally, this study systematically elaborates on the innovative applications of knitted structures in key medical components, such as extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) oxygenators and hernia repair meshes. It expounds on their irreplaceable advantages in tissue regeneration, fluid management, and life support, which are realized through tailored porous architectures, mechanical compatibility with biological tissues, and customizable manufacturing processes.

Conclusion and Prospect Knitting technology is driving the advancement of health-oriented textiles toward an integrated "sensing-response-intervention" system through cross-scale structural design, digital intelligent manufacturing, and multidisciplinary integration. Current challenges include balancing functional integration with wearing comfort, ensuring long-term biocompatibility, and achieving algorithm generalization in real-world scenarios. In the future, with the deep convergence of programmable knitting technology, novel smart fibers, and artificial intelligence, the next generation of health-focused knitting systems will evolve toward reconfigurable, adaptive, and personalized directions. This will provide robust technical support and guidance for the realization of smart healthcare and proactive health management.

Objective This study aims to investigate the quantitative relationship between the simulated pressure in a virtual try-on environment and actual dynamic pressure on real subjects with women's yoga leisure pants, so as to provide information for virtual simulation-based structural optimization in apparel design. Additionally, this study is set to investigate the dynamic patterns of garment pressure during specific yoga poses, conduct secondary optimization of prototype garments, and validated the pressure improvement effects based on these findings.

Method Virtual models and human subjects with standard 160/84A body measurements were selected, and some test clothes were made accordingly. Based on the material availability, virtual patterns were created using the DeepModa model, which were then developed into virtual clothes for virtual try-on. Next, different yoga poses were selected and a pressure measurement scheme was determined taking into account of the body's main stress points. Real pressure values measured on a clothed person and the pressure simulation values obtained using virtual simulation platform were recorded. Based on the data obtained, a mathematical relationship was established between the simulated and the practical pressure forces.

Results Pearson correlation analysis revealed significant positive correlations between the simulated pressure values and actual pressure measurements with the downward-facing dog pose (r=0.87) and the standing forward bend pose (r=0.72). Regression analysis indicated that the downward-facing dog pose and key points such as F₆, F₈ and B₅ had higher determination coefficients and that the regression model fits them well. However, the correlation was weakened for other complex movements, revealing the predictive limitations of the current virtual model in specific dynamic scenarios. Analysis of pressure distribution identified points F₃, F₆ and B₃ as high-pressure peak zones, primarily concentrated on the buttocks and inner thighs. In order to address this issue, the study implemented synergistic optimization of the structure and fabric. Additional darts and 0.5 cm of ease were added to the pattern structure along the stretch of the skin on the inner thigh of the front panel. The rear panel featured an M-shaped dart design with 0.5 cm of ease in the hip area, distributing pressure at point B₃ and creating a pressure-relief zone below the hips. This enhanced the fit along the hip line, improving alignment with the body's natural curves. Based on the significant correlation between fabric physical properties (e.g. tensile modulus is positively correlated with pressure, while resilience is negatively correlated with pressure) and pressure distribution, targeted improvements were made to fabric properties in the mid-anterior thigh and gluteal regions within the virtual environment. The test results showed a big decrease in pressure across all measurement points. In particular, when doing the downward-facing dog pose, the pressure at point B₃ dropped the most (10.64%), while that at point F₆ had the smallest decrease (6.67%). When the side angle was stretched, pressure at point F₆ had the biggest decrease in pressure (8.11%), and that at point F₃ had the smallest decrease (7.69%). This is mainly because the pressure is quite low at F₃, which limits improvement. Research findings indicated that these improvements made the body pressure more comfortable.

Conclusion When analyzing the relationship between virtual simulations and real-world pressure measurements in women's yoga loungewear, linear regression models demonstrate significant predictive power during specific static or low-amplitude poses such as downward facing dog pose. Based on this, the pattern structure and fabric properties were optimised to significantly improve pressure distribution at key stress points, effectively enhancing the garment's ability to adapt to dynamic human movement. This study further confirms the feasibility of using virtual simulation for guiding the optimization of garment structure and pressure comfort. Later studies might include infrared motion capture and non-linear models to create personalised multidimensional pressure transmission models, thus improving the precision of pressure simulation and prediction in garments.

Objective Warp-knitted fabrics are ideal for athletic vamp by virtue of their perme ability, light weight, and multi-directional stretchability. However, their irregular porous structure makes the dynamic behavior of printing paste extremely complex. The current industry practice remains largely manual and experience-dependent, resulting in high skill barriers, labor intensity, and inconsistent print quality. Given the labor-intensive nature and lack of effective evaluation strategies, it is urgent to investigate printing mechanisms, develop advanced equipment, and enhance automation.

Method Static, dynamic, and transient shear tests of the printing paste were conducted first to characterize its rheological properties, followed by the development of an analytical method to deal with the morphological change of the wedge-shaped variable-section squeegee, providing an analytical solution. Furthermore, based on lubrication theory, a mathematical model of the printing flow field was established, yielding dimensionless velocity and dynamic pressure distributions. A printing mechanism was eventually designed with precise force control and adjustable angle, achieving decoupled control of printing force, angle, and speed.

Results Printing paste exhibited high viscosity at low shear rates, with a significant decrease in viscosity as the shear rate increases, characterizing it as a shear-thinning fluid. Thixotropic tests showed a favorable structure recovery rate of 71.05%, which is crucial for pattern clarity. Rheological analysis revealed that both elastic and viscous moduli were strain-dependent. Beyond a critical strain of 24.77%, the elastic modulus decreased more sharply than the viscous modulus, indicating the gradual disintegration of the local elastic structure and a transition to dominant viscous behavior. An analytical method was proposed to solve the morphological change of the wedge-shaped variable cross-section squeegee. The squeegee is divided into a wedge-shaped section and a rectangular section. For the wedge-shaped section, the relationship between displacement and stress was derived from the geometric and constitutive equations in polar coordinates, and the expressions for the displacement components of the wedge-shaped section were obtained. For the rectangular section, a stress function was proposed according to its loading conditions. The geometric and constitutive equations in Cartesian coordinates for the plane strain problem were established, and the displacement components of the rectangular section were obtained. Applying boundary conditions and coordinate transformations provided a complete description of the squeegee's morphological change. The established flow field model demonstrated that fluid velocity distribution depends on the pressure gradient, squeegee speed, and squeegee deformation. Numerical integration of the dynamic pressure equation revealed that pressure on the screen surface increases sharply near the squeegee tip, confirming this zone as the primary driver for paste transfer. Furthermore, a printing equipment with a cyclically moving substrate and fixed printing units was designed. It enables precise control of printing force, adjustable angle, and decoupled regulation of force, angle, and velocity, addressing inconsistencies in manual printing. The flexible printing carrier and positioning system were developed, limiting maximum error to within 0.2 mm.

Conclusion This multidisciplinary study, integrating fluid mechanics, elasticity theory, and mechanical design, provides a comprehensive investigation into printing of warp-knitted athletic vamp. The non-Newtonian behavior and strain threshold of the paste were characterized, and an analytical method for determining the stress, strain, and displacement distributions of a wedge-shaped squeegee with a variable cross-section was proposed. Precise boundaries of the printing flow field were established. Based on lubrication theory, a mathematical model of the flow field was developed, enabling the determination of the velocity and pressure distributions of the printing paste. Furthermore, the dedicated printing equipment for warp-knitted athletic vamp was designed and developed. This research provides significant insights into the printing mechanism, contributes to enhancing the level of automation in the industry, improves the competitiveness of warp-knitted athletic vamp, and supports the realization of green and intelligent manufacturing.